Systematized by Meykandar (13th century CE) in Tamil Nadu, Shaiva Siddhānta posits three eternal entities: God (Pati/Shiva), souls (pashu), and bonds (pasha). It teaches that souls must remove the bonds of ignorance through Shiva's grace to achieve liberation (mukti).
Founded by Guru Nanak (15th-16th century CE) and developed by nine succeeding Gurus, Sikh philosophy teaches belief in one formless God (Ik Onkar), equality of all humans, and the importance of service (seva). It rejects caste distinctions and advocates a middle path between worldly responsibilities and spiritual pursuits.
A Madhyamaka Buddhist philosophy expounded by Nagarjuna (2nd century CE), teaching that all phenomena are empty (śūnya) of inherent existence. It uses dialectical analysis to refute all metaphysical positions and reveal the middle way between eternalism and nihilism.
Emerging around the 5th-6th centuries CE, Tantra spans multiple traditions including Hindu, Buddhist and Jain variants. It views the body as a microcosm of the universe and teaches transformation through ritual, visualization, mantra, and yogic practices. It often aims to unite opposing principles (e.g., Shiva-Shakti).
Attributed to sage Kaṇāda (2nd-1st century BCE), Vaisheshika proposes an atomistic theory of the universe, categorizing reality into six padārthas (categories). It maintains that all objects are composed of atoms (aṇu) that are eternal and indivisible. Later merged with Nyāya due to complementary approaches.
Encompassing various traditions centered on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama. Major philosophical branches include Gaudiya Vaishnavism (established by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the 16th century CE), which emphasizes loving devotion (prema-bhakti) as the highest spiritual practice.