Revitalized by Mahavira (6th century BCE), Jainism advocates ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (many-sidedness of reality), and aparigraha (non-attachment). It holds that the universe is eternal and uncreated, and that reality can be viewed from multiple perspectives (syādvāda).
Developed by Vasugupta and Abhinavagupta (9th-10th centuries CE), Kashmir Shaivism teaches that Consciousness (Shiva) is the sole reality. It presents a dynamic view of absolute consciousness, which manifests the universe through its power (Shakti) in a process of self-recognition.
Founded by Jaimini (3rd century BCE), Mīmāṃsā (also called Pūrva Mīmāṃsā) focuses on the correct interpretation of Vedic rituals and texts. It developed hermeneutic principles, linguistic analysis, and a unique theory of intrinsic validity of knowledge (svataḥ prāmāṇya).
Founded by sage Gautama (2nd century CE), Nyāya focuses on logic, reasoning and methodology of knowledge acquisition. It developed a sophisticated system of syllogistic logic and established pramāṇas (valid means of knowledge). Nyāya's epistemological framework has been influential across all Indian philosophical traditions.
Centered on worship of the Divine Mother (Devi/Shakti), Śākta philosophy views the ultimate reality as feminine. It teaches that Shakti is both the material and efficient cause of creation and emphasizes the active principle of divinity. Major texts include the Devi Mahatmya and various Tantras.
Traditionally attributed to sage Kapila (7th-6th century BCE), Sāṃkhya is one of the oldest philosophical systems. It posits a strict dualism between consciousness (puruṣa) and matter/nature (prakṛti), with the universe evolving through the interaction of 24 cosmic principles or tattvas.