Kashmir Shaivism – School of Non-Dual Shaivism

Kashmir Shaivism: A Monistic School of Hindu Philosophy

Introduction

Kashmir Shaivism, also known as Trika Shaivism (referring to its emphasis on the triad of Shiva, Shakti, and Nara - the divine, energy, and individual), is a non-dualist (Advaita) school of Shaivism that originated in Kashmir sometime around the 9th century CE. It posits a unified reality where Shiva, the supreme consciousness, is the only reality. Unlike other forms of Shaivism that emphasize devotion and ritual, Kashmir Shaivism prioritizes direct experience (anubhava) and recognition (pratyabhijna) of one’s inherent Shiva-nature. This school provides a sophisticated philosophical framework to understand the relationship between the individual, the universe, and the divine. Its historical significance lies in its unique interpretation of Advaita Vedanta, incorporating tantric elements and a radical affirmation of the world as an expression of divine consciousness. Today, despite its historical decline in Kashmir itself, the philosophy continues to be studied and practiced by adherents worldwide, influencing both religious and philosophical discourse.

Origins and Historical Development

Founders or Key Figures:

• Vasugupta (c. 875-925 CE): Considered the founder of the system. He is believed to have received the Shiva Sutras divinely, which form the foundation of Kashmir Shaivism.
• Kallata (c. 9th century CE): A prominent disciple of Vasugupta, who wrote the Spanda-karikas, another key text exploring the concept of Spanda (divine pulsation).
• Somananda (c. 9th-10th century CE): A key figure who further systematized the philosophy, challenging dualistic views and firmly establishing the Advaita perspective. He is known for his work, the Shiva-drishti.
• Utpaladeva (c. 10th century CE): Somananda’s disciple and a pivotal figure who wrote the Ishvara-pratyabhijna-karika (Verses on the Recognition of the Lord), outlining the core doctrine of Pratyabhijna (self-recognition).
• Abhinavagupta (c. 950-1015 CE): The most influential and prolific scholar of Kashmir Shaivism. He consolidated the various schools of the Trika system through his extensive commentaries and original works, including the Tantraloka (The Light on Tantra), the Tantrasara (Essence of Tantra), and his commentary on Utpaladeva’s Ishvara-pratyabhijna-karika.
• Kshemaraja (c. 11th century CE): A disciple of Abhinavagupta, who wrote accessible summaries of Abhinavagupta’s complex teachings, such as the Pratyabhijnahrdayam (The Heart of Self-Recognition).

Historical Context:

Kashmir Shaivism emerged during a period of significant intellectual and religious ferment in Kashmir. The region was a vibrant center of Buddhist, Hindu, and other philosophical traditions. The rise of Kashmir Shaivism coincided with a decline in Buddhism and the increasing influence of tantric traditions. The socio-political climate was one of relative stability under the Karkota and Utpala dynasties, which provided patronage to scholars and artists, fostering a fertile ground for philosophical innovation. This allowed for a synthesis of existing philosophical schools, particularly Advaita Vedanta and various Tantric traditions, leading to the unique characteristics of Kashmir Shaivism.

Key Texts or Scriptures:

• Shiva Sutras: Revealed to Vasugupta, considered the foundational text containing aphoristic statements about Shiva’s nature.
• Spanda-karikas: Written by Kallata, exploring the doctrine of Spanda (divine pulsation).
• Shiva-drishti: Written by Somananda, refuting dualistic views and establishing the Advaita perspective.
• Ishvara-pratyabhijna-karika: Written by Utpaladeva, outlining the doctrine of Pratyabhijna (self-recognition).
• Tantraloka: Abhinavagupta’s encyclopedic treatise on Trika philosophy and practice.
• Tantrasara: Abhinavagupta’s summary of the Tantraloka.
• Pratyabhijnahrdayam: Kshemaraja’s concise summary of the Pratyabhijna philosophy.
• Malinivijayottaratantra: An important Tantric text accepted as a source scripture by the Trika tradition.

Evolution over Time and Major Schools or Branches:

While unified by its core Advaita philosophy, Kashmir Shaivism can be understood as having three primary paths or schools:

1. Krama School: Emphasizes the sequential unfolding of consciousness through the 12 Kalis (energies or aspects of Shiva’s consciousness). Its primary practice involves the contemplation of these Kalis and their relation to the self.
2. Kaula School: Known for its ritual practices involving the utilization of the senses and seemingly transgressive acts (from a conventional perspective) to transcend dualities and realize the divine within. It utilizes various ritual substances and practices to awaken consciousness. This school is less commonly practiced openly today.
3. Pratyabhijna School: This is the most philosophical and widely studied branch. It focuses on the direct recognition of one’s inherent Shiva-nature through intellectual understanding and contemplation. The Ishvara-pratyabhijna-karika is central to this school.

These schools are not mutually exclusive, and Abhinavagupta’s work, particularly the Tantraloka, integrates aspects of all three. Over time, the Pratyabhijna school has become the most influential and representative of Kashmir Shaivism.

Core Doctrines and Beliefs

Central Metaphysical and Epistemological Ideas:

• Advaita (Non-Dualism): The cornerstone of Kashmir Shaivism is the belief that reality is a single, unified consciousness (Shiva). There is no fundamental separation between the individual soul (Atman) and the divine.
• Shiva: The supreme, ultimate reality. Shiva is not a personal god in the traditional sense but rather the all-pervading, self-aware consciousness from which everything arises. Shiva is considered both transcendent and immanent.
• Shakti: The dynamic energy or power of Shiva. Shakti is not separate from Shiva but is rather His inherent capacity for creation, manifestation, and activity. Shakti is often personified as a goddess.
• Spanda: The divine pulsation or vibration that is the source of all creation and movement. Spanda is the inherent dynamism of Shiva-Shakti, the force that causes the universe to manifest from the unmanifested.
• Pratyabhijna (Recognition): The key concept of self-realization in Kashmir Shaivism. It involves recognizing one’s inherent Shiva-nature, realizing that one is not separate from the divine. This recognition is not merely intellectual but a direct experiential realization.
• Maya: Not viewed as an illusion (as in Advaita Vedanta) but rather as the divine power of self-concealment, allowing Shiva to experience Himself in limited forms as individual beings. Maya is a creative power, not a deceptive one.
• The Thirty-Six Tattvas: Kashmir Shaivism outlines a hierarchy of thirty-six tattvas (principles or categories) that represent the unfolding of reality from Shiva to the grossest material elements. These tattvas provide a framework for understanding the manifestation of the universe.

Key Concepts and Terminology:

• Anubhava: Direct experience, crucial for realizing one’s true nature.
• Karma: Actions and their consequences. While Karma exists, it is not seen as binding in the same way as in other Hindu schools. Recognizing one’s Shiva-nature transcends the limitations of Karma.
• Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of birth and death, achieved through the recognition of one’s Shiva-nature. Moksha is not the annihilation of the self but the realization of its true identity as Shiva.
• Dharma: Righteous conduct, understood in the context of recognizing the unity of all beings.

View of the Self, Reality, and Liberation:

Kashmir Shaivism views the self as inherently divine, a spark of Shiva-consciousness veiled by ignorance (ajnana). Reality is a unified, dynamic expression of Shiva-Shakti. Liberation (moksha) is the realization of this unity, the recognition of one’s true identity as Shiva. This realization is not a process of achieving something new but rather of unveiling what is already present.

Ethical Teachings and Practices

Moral Principles or Ethical Codes:

While Kashmir Shaivism doesn’t prescribe a rigid ethical code, it emphasizes the importance of living in accordance with one’s realized Shiva-nature. This involves:

• Compassion (Karuna): Recognizing the divine within all beings leads to compassion and a desire to alleviate suffering.
• Non-Attachment (Vairagya): Cultivating detachment from worldly desires and attachments helps to maintain equanimity and facilitates self-recognition.
• Truthfulness (Satya): Speaking and acting truthfully reflects the integrity of one’s realized Shiva-nature.
• Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Recognizing the unity of all beings promotes non-violence in thought, word, and deed.

Rituals, Practices, Meditation, or Disciplines:

Kashmir Shaivism offers a variety of practices designed to facilitate self-recognition, including:

• Meditation (Dhyana): Focusing attention on the inner Self to quiet the mind and experience one’s inherent Shiva-nature.
• Mantra Yoga: Reciting mantras (sacred sounds) to invoke divine energies and purify the mind. The Spanda-karikas discuss the power of mantra.
• Visualisation (Bhavana): Creating mental images of deities or sacred symbols to awaken inner consciousness.
• Ritual Worship (Puja): Performing rituals to honor Shiva and Shakti and to connect with the divine. This can involve offering flowers, incense, and other symbolic items.
• Breath Control (Pranayama): Regulating the breath to calm the mind and awaken inner energies.
• Contemplation (Manana): Reflecting on the teachings of Kashmir Shaivism to deepen understanding and facilitate self-recognition.

Daily Life Guidance and Societal Implications:

Kashmir Shaivism encourages individuals to live a life of awareness, recognizing the divine presence in every aspect of experience. This leads to a more compassionate, mindful, and fulfilling way of life. Its emphasis on unity and non-duality promotes social harmony and encourages individuals to treat all beings with respect and compassion. By realizing one’s true nature, individuals can contribute to a more enlightened and peaceful society.

Major Schools and Variations

As outlined previously, the three major schools within Kashmir Shaivism are the Krama, Kaula, and Pratyabhijna schools, each with its distinct emphasis and approach to achieving self-recognition. The Pratyabhijna school, focused on intellectual understanding and self-recognition, has become the most influential and widely studied. While the Kaula school, with its often-esoteric practices, receives less public attention, its emphasis on using all aspects of experience for spiritual growth remains a valuable aspect of the tradition. The Krama school emphasizes the sequential unfolding of consciousness through the contemplation of specific energetic forms.

Influence and Legacy

Influence on Indian Society, Politics, Literature, and Arts:

Kashmir Shaivism has exerted a considerable influence on various aspects of Indian culture:

• Philosophy: Its sophisticated Advaita philosophy has challenged and enriched traditional Vedantic thought.
• Literature: The writings of Abhinavagupta and other Kashmir Shaivite scholars are considered masterpieces of Indian literature, known for their profound insights and poetic beauty.
• Arts: The philosophy has inspired countless works of art, including sculptures, paintings, and music, reflecting the beauty and grandeur of Shiva and Shakti. The Kashmiri aesthetic theory known as Dhvani was also significantly influenced by Abhinavagupta’s philosophical ideas.
• Tantric Traditions: Kashmir Shaivism has influenced and been influenced by other Tantric traditions, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian spirituality.

Impact on Other Philosophies or Religions:

• Hinduism: Kashmir Shaivism is considered an important school within the broader Hindu tradition, particularly Shaivism.
• Advaita Vedanta: While distinct, it shares common ground with Advaita Vedanta in its non-dualistic view of reality. It however, offers a more active and dynamic understanding of the world compared to Shankara’s Vedanta.
• Influence on Western Thought: In recent years, Kashmir Shaivism has gained increasing interest in Western philosophical and spiritual circles, attracting scholars and practitioners seeking a deeper understanding of consciousness and reality.

Contemporary Relevance and Practices Today:

Despite its historical decline in Kashmir, Kashmir Shaivism continues to be studied and practiced by adherents worldwide. Its emphasis on direct experience and self-recognition resonates with contemporary spiritual seekers. Many scholars and practitioners are working to preserve and promote the teachings of Kashmir Shaivism through publications, online resources, and workshops.

Criticism and Debates

Internal Debates within the Tradition:

While unified by its core philosophy, Kashmir Shaivism has seen internal debates regarding the interpretation of key concepts and the emphasis on different practices. Disagreements arose regarding the specific methods for attaining self-recognition and the relative importance of different schools (Krama, Kaula, Pratyabhijna).

External Criticism by Other Philosophical or Religious Schools:

Kashmir Shaivism has faced criticism from other philosophical and religious schools, particularly those with dualistic viewpoints. Critics have questioned its non-dualistic metaphysics and its acceptance of the world as a real manifestation of the divine, rather than an illusion. Some traditional Vedantins, for example, might find the emphasis on Shakti and the perceived “worldliness” of Kashmir Shaiva practices problematic.

Conclusion

Kashmir Shaivism is a sophisticated and profound philosophical system that offers a unique perspective on the nature of reality, the self, and liberation. Its emphasis on direct experience, the recognition of one’s Shiva-nature, and the affirmation of the world as a divine manifestation continue to inspire and challenge individuals seeking a deeper understanding of themselves and the universe. Its enduring significance lies in its comprehensive philosophical framework, its practical techniques for self-realization, and its profound insights into the nature of consciousness. While often associated with historical Kashmir, its teachings transcend geographical boundaries, offering a path to self-discovery that remains relevant and transformative in the modern world.

This is a broad overview and much more could be said on each of these sections. It is recommended that readers consult the cited texts and engage with contemporary scholarship to gain a deeper understanding of this rich and complex philosophical tradition.