Jainism – School of Non-Violence and Non-Absolutism

Jainism: The Philosophy of Non-Violence and Non-Absolutism

Introduction

Jainism, an ancient Indian religion and philosophy, is primarily known for its rigorous commitment to ahimsa (non-violence) and its unique doctrine of anekantavada (non-absolutism). Beyond its ethical emphasis, Jainism offers a comprehensive worldview encompassing metaphysics, epistemology, and soteriology. It proposes a path to liberation (moksha) through self-discipline, austerity, and the eradication of karma. Jainism has significantly impacted Indian society, influencing ethical thought, art, literature, and even political movements. Its enduring relevance lies in its promotion of peace, environmental responsibility, and ethical living.

Origins and Historical Development

Founders or Key Figures: While Jain traditions acknowledge a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras (ford-makers or spiritual teachers) in each cosmic cycle, the most recent and historically verifiable is Vardhamana Mahavira (599-527 BCE or 549-477 BCE, depending on differing scholarly views). He is considered the last Tirthankara of the current cosmic age. Parsvanatha, traditionally considered the 23rd Tirthankara, is also believed to be a historical figure who lived approximately 250 years before Mahavira.

Historical Context: Jainism arose in the 6th century BCE in India, a period of significant intellectual and religious ferment. The existing Vedic religious practices were being challenged by new philosophical and ascetic movements. The social and political landscape was characterized by the rise of the sramana tradition, which emphasized individual effort and renunciation as paths to spiritual liberation, in contrast to the Brahmanical system emphasizing ritualistic sacrifice. Jainism, along with Buddhism and Ajivika, emerged as prominent representatives of this sramana tradition.

Key Texts or Scriptures: Jain scriptures, known as the Agamas, are a collection of sermons, dialogues, and narratives attributed to the Tirthankaras and compiled by their disciples. These texts are primarily written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. There is no single universally accepted canon. The Svetambara sect accepts the validity of the Agamas as they have been passed down through tradition, while the Digambara sect believes the original Agamas were lost, and their current texts are based on the teachings of revered acharyas (teachers). Important Agamas include the Acaranga Sutra (dealing with monastic life), Sutrakritanga Sutra (refuting other doctrines), and Uttaradhyayana Sutra (containing dialogues between teachers and disciples).

Evolution over Time and Major Schools or Branches: Following Mahavira’s death, the Jain community underwent various transformations and divisions. The most significant division occurred around the 1st century CE, leading to the emergence of two main branches:

• Digambara (Sky-Clad): Digambaras believe in complete renunciation, including the abandonment of clothing. They maintain that women cannot attain liberation directly, but must be reborn as men. They adhere strictly to the principles of asceticism and self-mortification.
• Svetambara (White-Clad): Svetambaras wear white clothing and believe that women can attain liberation directly. They place greater emphasis on scriptures and practices.

Within these main divisions, further sub-sects have arisen based on specific interpretations and practices. For instance, within the Svetambara tradition, there are the Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi sub-sects, which reject idol worship.

Core Doctrines and Beliefs

Central Metaphysical and Epistemological Ideas: Jain metaphysics is characterized by dravya (substance), guna (quality), and paryaya (mode). The universe is comprised of six eternal and independent substances:

• Jiva (Soul): The conscious, sentient principle. Every living being, from humans to plants, possesses a jiva.
• Pudgala (Matter): Non-conscious matter in various forms.
• Akasha (Space): Provides space for all other substances to exist.
• Kala (Time): Allows for change and duration.
• Dharma (Medium of Motion): Enables movement.
• Adharma (Medium of Rest): Enables rest.

Jain epistemology emphasizes anekantavada (non-absolutism), syadvada (the doctrine of “maybe”), and nayavada (the theory of viewpoints). Anekantavada states that reality is complex and multifaceted and can only be understood from multiple perspectives. Syadvada acknowledges the limitations of human language and the possibility of multiple valid perspectives by qualifying every statement with “syat” (maybe or relatively). Nayavada describes different viewpoints or standpoints from which reality can be understood, highlighting the partial and limited nature of each perspective.

Key Concepts and Terminology:

• Dharma: In Jainism, dharma refers to the path of purification and liberation, encompassing ethical conduct, right knowledge, and right faith. It also refers to the medium of motion.
• Karma: Karma is a subtle form of matter that attaches to the jiva (soul) due to actions, thoughts, and speech. Karma obscures the inherent purity and knowledge of the soul, leading to suffering and rebirth.
• Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of birth and death, achieved through the complete eradication of karma and the realization of the soul’s true nature.
• Nirvana: Often used synonymously with Moksha, referring to the state of complete liberation.
• Ahinsa: Non-violence; the principle of avoiding harm to any living being. This is the cornerstone of Jain ethics.

View of the Self, Reality, and Liberation: The Jiva (soul) is considered inherently pure, possessing infinite knowledge, bliss, and power. However, due to the accumulation of karma, its true nature is obscured. Reality is a complex interplay of the six substances. Liberation (moksha) is achieved by eliminating all karma through right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, allowing the soul to realize its inherent potential and attain eternal bliss. The liberated soul resides in Siddhashila, the abode of perfected beings, beyond the cycle of rebirth.

Ethical Teachings and Practices

Moral Principles or Ethical Codes: Jain ethics is centered around the five Mahavratas (great vows) for ascetics and the five Anuvratas (lesser vows) for laypersons:

• Ahimsa (Non-violence): Avoiding harm to any living being through thoughts, words, and deeds.
• Satya (Truthfulness): Speaking the truth in a non-harmful manner.
• Asteya (Non-stealing): Not taking anything that is not freely given.
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity): Abstaining from sexual activity (for ascetics) or remaining faithful to one’s spouse (for laypersons).
• Aparigraha (Non-attachment): Minimizing possessions and attachments to material things.

Rituals, Practices, Meditation, or Disciplines: Jain practices are designed to purify the soul and eliminate karma. These include:

• Samayika: Regular meditation and self-reflection.
• Pratikramana: Confession and repentance of wrongdoings.
• Kayotsarga: Abandonment of the body, a posture of meditation where the body is held still for extended periods.
• Fasting: Abstaining from food as a form of self-discipline and purification.
• Study of scriptures: Learning and contemplating the teachings of the Tirthankaras.

Daily Life Guidance and Societal Implications: Jain principles influence all aspects of life. Jains often choose occupations that minimize harm to living beings, such as vegetarianism/veganism, teaching, or business (avoiding activities that involve killing animals or exploiting resources). They actively engage in charitable activities and promote social justice, seeking to create a more compassionate and equitable society. They strive to minimize their environmental impact and advocate for animal rights.

Major Schools and Variations

As mentioned previously, the two major schools are Digambara and Svetambara. Further variations exist within these schools:

• Digambara: Sub-sects exist based on regional variations and interpretations of scriptures.
• Svetambara: Includes sub-sects like Sthanakavasi (non-idolatrous) and Terapanthi (a reform movement emphasizing discipline and scripture study).

The key differences lie in the interpretation of scriptures, the role of women in achieving liberation, and the practices of asceticism.

Influence and Legacy

Influence on Indian Society, Politics, Literature, and Arts: Jainism has profoundly influenced Indian culture. Its emphasis on non-violence impacted ethical thought and contributed to the development of vegetarianism/veganism practices in India. Jain art and architecture are renowned for their intricate carvings and dedication to depicting Tirthankaras and Jain principles. Jain literature has enriched Indian languages with philosophical texts, stories, and poetry. Jain principles of non-violence influenced Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) during the Indian independence movement.

Impact on other Philosophies or Religions: Jainism influenced Hinduism, particularly the concept of ahimsa and the emphasis on karma and reincarnation. Some scholars argue that Jainism may have influenced early Buddhist thought. Western philosophical thought has also been influenced by Jainism, particularly its emphasis on non-violence and its pluralistic view of reality.

Contemporary Relevance and Practices Today: Jainism continues to be a vibrant religion with a significant presence in India and a growing diaspora worldwide. Jains today actively promote their principles of non-violence, environmental responsibility, and ethical living through various organizations and initiatives. They engage in interfaith dialogue and work to promote peace and understanding.

Criticism and Debates

Internal Debates within the Tradition: Historically, debates have occurred between Digambara and Svetambara sects regarding the authenticity of scriptures and the interpretation of religious practices. Internal debates continue regarding the application of Jain principles in the modern world, such as balancing economic activities with the principle of non-violence.

External Criticism by other Philosophical or Religious Schools: Jainism has faced criticism from other philosophical schools, particularly those that emphasize the efficacy of Vedic rituals or the concept of a supreme creator god. Some have criticized the extreme ascetic practices of certain Jain monks as impractical or harmful. The Jain doctrine of anekantavada has been criticized for leading to moral relativism.

Conclusion

Jainism is a profound and enduring philosophical system that offers a path to liberation through self-discipline, non-violence, and the eradication of karma. Its unique doctrine of anekantavada promotes tolerance and understanding by acknowledging the limitations of human perception. Its ethical emphasis on non-violence has influenced Indian society and beyond, inspiring movements for peace, social justice, and environmental protection. Jainism’s contributions to philosophy lie in its comprehensive worldview, its emphasis on individual responsibility, and its unwavering commitment to creating a more compassionate and equitable world. Its ongoing relevance underscores the timeless value of its principles in addressing contemporary challenges.