Advaita Vedānta – School of Non-Dualism

Advaita Vedānta: The School of Non-Dualism

Introduction

Advaita Vedānta, meaning “non-duality” or “non-difference,” is one of the most influential schools of Vedānta, a sub-school within the broader Hindu philosophical tradition. It posits the ultimate reality as Brahman, the attributeless (nirguna) and undifferentiated absolute, and asserts the illusory nature of the phenomenal world (māyā). Advaita emphasizes the fundamental oneness of Atman (the individual self) with Brahman, advocating for liberation (moksha) through the realization of this identity. Its historical significance lies in its profound impact on Hindu thought, practice, and the development of Indian intellectual history. Its relevance continues today through its influence on contemporary spirituality and its ongoing engagement with modern philosophical concerns.

Origins and Historical Development

• Founders and Key Figures: While roots can be traced to the Upanishads, the primary architect and systematizer of Advaita Vedānta is generally considered to be Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE), the author of the Māṇḍūkya Kārikā, a commentary on the Māṇḍūkya Upanishad. However, the most prominent figure is Ādi Śaṅkara (c. 8th century CE), who is credited with popularizing, systematizing, and defending Advaita through his extensive commentaries, philosophical treatises, and the establishment of monastic orders. Śaṅkara’s disciples, such as Sureśvara and Padmapāda, further elaborated on and propagated his teachings.

• Historical Context: Advaita emerged within a complex religious and philosophical landscape in India. Buddhism was a dominant force, and various theistic Hindu schools were gaining prominence. The resurgence of Brahmanical Hinduism involved reinterpreting the Vedic tradition, particularly the Upanishads, in a way that could address the challenges posed by other philosophies and cater to evolving religious needs. Politically, the period witnessed the rise and fall of various empires, creating a dynamic socio-political environment that fostered intellectual debate and philosophical innovation. Culturally, the growth of devotional (bhakti) movements provided a backdrop against which Advaita’s emphasis on knowledge (jnana) was understood.

• Key Texts and Scriptures: Advaita Vedānta draws heavily on the Prasthānatrayī – the three foundational texts:

  • Upanishads (Śruti): The revealed scriptures, particularly the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad, the Chāndogya Upanishad, and the Māṇḍūkya Upanishad, provide the primary basis for Advaita’s metaphysical claims.
  • Brahma Sūtras (Vedānta Sūtras): A concise and often cryptic collection of aphorisms systematizing the teachings of the Upanishads.
  • Bhagavad Gita (Smriti): Though a theistic text, Advaita interprets the Gita through its own non-dual lens, emphasizing the importance of selfless action and knowledge. In addition to the Prasthānatrayī, the works of Gaudapada and Śaṅkara, including his commentaries on these scriptures (Bhashyas) and independent treatises (Prakaraṇagranthas) like the Vivekachudamani (Crest-Jewel of Discrimination), are crucial texts.

• Evolution Over Time and Major Schools or Branches: While adhering to the core principles established by Śaṅkara, Advaita has seen variations and reinterpretations over time. Key distinctions arose regarding the nature of avidyā (ignorance) and māyā (illusion). Two significant sub-schools are:

  • Bhāmatī School: Associated with Vācaspati Miśra’s commentary, the Bhāmatī, on Śaṅkara’s Brahma Sūtra commentary. This school emphasizes jīva-māyā, suggesting that individual ignorance is the cause of individual illusion.
  • Vivaraṇa School: Associated with Prakāśātman’s commentary, the Pañcapādikā-vivaraṇa, on Padmapāda’s Pañcapādikā, a commentary on Śaṅkara’s Brahma Sūtra commentary. This school emphasizes brahma-māyā, suggesting that Brahman’s power of illusion is the root cause of the entire universe. Later developments also included the emergence of Neo-Vedānta, a modern interpretation of Advaita that seeks to reconcile its teachings with modern science and ethics.

Core Doctrines and Beliefs

• Central Metaphysical and Epistemological Ideas: The central metaphysical tenet of Advaita is the non-duality (advaita) of Brahman and Atman. Brahman is the sole reality, beyond attributes and limitations. The world perceived through our senses is an illusory manifestation of Brahman, a product of māyā. Epistemologically, Advaita recognizes different levels of reality. The empirical world (vyavaharika) is real for practical purposes, but it is ultimately transcended by the higher, transcendental reality (paramarthika) of Brahman. Knowledge (jnana) is the primary means of realizing this transcendental reality.

• Key Concepts and Terminology:

  • Brahman: The ultimate, unchanging reality; the Absolute.
  • Atman: The individual self or soul; ultimately identical with Brahman.
  • Māyā: Illusion; the power of Brahman that conceals the true nature of reality and projects the phenomenal world.
  • Avidyā: Ignorance; the root cause of suffering and bondage, stemming from the failure to recognize the identity of Atman and Brahman.
  • Karma: Action; the law of cause and effect, which binds individuals to the cycle of rebirth. In Advaita, the effects of Karma operate within the realm of māyā.
  • Dharma: Righteous conduct; one’s duty or moral obligations. While not the ultimate goal, fulfilling one’s dharma purifies the mind and prepares one for the pursuit of knowledge.
  • Moksha: Liberation; release from the cycle of birth and death, achieved through the realization of the identity of Atman and Brahman.
  • Nirvana: Although often associated with Buddhism, Advaita also uses this term to describe the state of liberation, signifying the cessation of suffering and the realization of the true Self.

• View of the Self, Reality, and Liberation: Advaita views the individual self (Atman) as essentially identical to Brahman. The perceived separation is due to ignorance (avidyā). The reality we experience is a superimposition (adhyāsa) on Brahman, like seeing a rope and mistaking it for a snake. Liberation (moksha) is achieved when this ignorance is dispelled through knowledge (jnana), and the true nature of the self as Brahman is realized. This realization leads to the cessation of suffering and the end of the cycle of rebirth.

Ethical Teachings and Practices

• Moral Principles or Ethical Codes: While Advaita emphasizes knowledge as the primary means of liberation, ethical conduct plays a crucial role in preparing the mind for the reception of this knowledge. Key virtues include truthfulness (satya), non-violence (ahimsa), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya), and non-possessiveness (aparigraha).

• Rituals, Practices, Meditation, or Disciplines: Advaita outlines a path known as Jñana Yoga, the yoga of knowledge. Key practices include:

  • Śravaṇa (Hearing): Studying and listening to the scriptures and the teachings of a qualified guru (teacher).
  • Manana (Reflection): Reflecting on the teachings to clarify doubts and gain a deeper understanding.
  • Nididhyāsana (Contemplation): Meditating on the teachings to firmly establish them in one’s consciousness.
  • Samadhi: The state of complete absorption in Brahman, achieved through sustained contemplation. Formal rituals and devotional practices are generally considered secondary to the pursuit of knowledge, although they can be helpful in purifying the mind.

• Daily Life Guidance and Societal Implications: Advaita emphasizes living a life of detachment and non-attachment, performing one’s duties without being attached to the results. While the ultimate goal is transcending the world of duality, Advaita ethics encourage compassion, service, and ethical conduct within that world. Some critics argue that Advaita’s emphasis on illusion can lead to ethical relativism, but proponents emphasize that ethical behavior is necessary for spiritual progress and is therefore a real and important aspect of living in the relative world.

Major Schools and Variations

As described above in the “Origins and Historical Development” section, the two primary sub-schools are the Bhāmatī and Vivaraṇa schools, distinguished by their interpretation of māyā. Neo-Vedānta represents a modern adaptation.

Influence and Legacy

• Influence on Indian Society, Politics, Literature, and Arts: Advaita Vedānta has deeply influenced Indian society and culture. Its emphasis on the underlying unity of all beings has inspired social reform movements and promoted religious tolerance. Its concepts have permeated Indian literature, art, and music, providing a philosophical framework for artistic expression. While not directly political, Advaita’s emphasis on selfless action and detachment from worldly desires has indirectly influenced ethical leadership.

• Impact on Other Philosophies or Religions: Advaita’s influence extends beyond Hinduism. Its ideas have resonated with elements of Buddhism, particularly Zen and Tibetan Buddhism. In the West, Advaita has influenced various spiritual movements, including Transcendentalism and the New Age movement. Its emphasis on universal consciousness and the illusory nature of reality has also engaged with modern Western philosophy.

• Contemporary Relevance and Practices Today: Advaita continues to be a vibrant and influential philosophical system. Its teachings are widely studied and practiced, both in India and around the world. Modern gurus and teachers continue to interpret and adapt Advaita for contemporary audiences, often emphasizing its relevance to personal growth, stress reduction, and ethical living. The core practices of śravaṇa, manana, and nididhyāsana remain central to Advaita’s practical application today.

Criticism and Debates

• Internal Debates within the Tradition: As mentioned earlier, internal debates exist concerning the nature of māyā and avidyā. Another significant debate concerns the role of action (karma) in relation to knowledge (jnana). Some Advaitins argue that action is completely superseded by knowledge, while others maintain that action is necessary to prepare the mind for knowledge.

• External Criticism by Other Philosophical or Religious Schools: Advaita has faced criticism from other Vedānta schools, such as Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) and Dvaita (dualism), which emphasize the distinct reality of God and the individual soul. These schools criticize Advaita for denying the reality of the world and for potentially undermining ethical responsibility. Buddhists often criticize Advaita’s concept of Atman, arguing that it contradicts the Buddhist doctrine of anatta (non-self). Materialist and atheist schools also reject Advaita’s metaphysical claims, arguing for the primacy of matter and the absence of any transcendental reality.

Conclusion

Advaita Vedānta represents a profound and enduring philosophical system that has shaped Indian thought and culture for centuries. Its core teaching of non-duality, the identity of Atman and Brahman, offers a radical vision of reality and a path to liberation from suffering. While facing internal debates and external criticisms, Advaita continues to resonate with individuals seeking spiritual understanding and offers a unique perspective on the nature of self, reality, and the ultimate meaning of life. Its contributions to philosophical discourse and its enduring relevance in the modern world secure its place as a significant and influential school of thought.